Greenhouse gases also play an important role in regulating the surface temperature. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. [241] In total, about 550 people have visited outer space and reached orbit as of November 2018[update], and, of these, twelve have walked on the Moon. - Understand change and observable patterns of weather that occur from day to day and throughout the year. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. [26] It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their ancestral root has been reconstructed as *erþÅ. 3. [81] Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years. - Summarize how electrically charged objects push or pull on other electrically charged objects and produce motion. NCES.5.L.3 - Understand why organisms differ from or are similar to their parents based on the characteristics of the organism. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Sedimentary -- Pertaining to or containing sediment, or formed by its deposition. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. 2. [141][142], During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the aurora. They range in size from simple unicelluar forms to giant kelps several meters long, and display extremely varied life cycles and physiological processes, with, for example, different complexes of photosynthetic pigments. [170] Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is disputed. [173], Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. Sediment -- Solid material that has settled down from a state of suspension in a liquid. [5] The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors. [165] The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. Found inside – Page 10-6This is why the wind direction at the surface varies somewhat from the wind direction just a few thousand feet above ... [ Figure 10-10 ] The speed of the Earth's rotation causes the general flow to break up into three distinct cells in ... In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September. - Give examples of likenesses that are inherited and some that are not. Aggregate -- A mass or body of rock particles, mineral grains, or both. - Understand how the cycling of matter (water and gases) in and out of the atmosphere relates to Earth. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Crystal -- A homogenous, solid body of a chemical element, compound, or isomorphous mixture, having a regularly repeating atomic arrangement that may be outwardly expressed by plane faces. Calcite and aragonite (CaCO 3 ) are examples of carbonates. Pyroclastic -- Pertaining to clastic rock material formed by volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic vent. A region's climate is not only determined by latitude, but also by elevation and proximity to moderating oceans, among other factors. Obsidian -- A back or dark-colored volcanic glass, usually of rhyolitic composition, characterized by conchoidal fracture. - Explain how the idea of atoms and a balanced chemical equation support the law of conservation of mass. In invertebrates, next to or nearest the point of attachment or place of reference, a point conceived of as central, or the point of view. - Explain how humans can adapt their behavior to live in changing habitats (e.g., recycling wastes, establishing rain gardens, planting trees and shrubs to prevent flooding and erosion). Tectonic -- Pertaining to the forces involved in, or the resulting structures of, tectonics. Gravel -- 1) An unconsolidated natural accumulation of rounded rock fragments, mostly of particles larger than sand (diameter greater than 2 millimeters), such as boulders, cobbles, pebbles, granules, or any combination of these; the unconsolidated equivalent of a conglomerate. - Understand food and the benefits of vitamins, minerals and exercise. - Explain how animals meet their needs by using behaviors in response to information received from the environment. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Found inside – Page 74As the air moves northward it also cools, and some of it sinks back to the Earth's surface (FIGURE 5-2b). This air flows back toward the ... Figure 5-2c shows three distinct wind patterns, one in each zone of the northern hemisphere. - Explain how magnets interact with all things made of iron and with other magnets to produce motion without touching them. States claim the planet's entire land surface, except for parts of Antarctica and a few other unclaimed areas. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year). 1. [129][130] Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. - Compare Earth's land features (including volcanoes, mountains, valleys, canyons, caverns, and islands) by using models, pictures, diagrams, and maps. [27], Historically, earth has been written in lowercase. Found inside – Page 63To signify how these processes redistribute air, heat and moisture across the Earth, producing distinct patterns ... Global temperature regimes are a reflection of the pattern of heating of the Earth's near-spherical surface (latitude). See: Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding, The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".â. - Understand the processes, structures and functions of living organisms that enable them to survive, reproduce and carry out the basic functions of life. 2) A popular term for detrital sediment along streams or beaches, composed cheifly of pebbles and sand. This term is generally used for any hot water, but has been restricted by some to water of magmatic origin. NCES.K.E.1 - Understand change and observable patterns of weather that occur from day to day and throughout the year. [115], As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (for example, "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the (for example, "the atmosphere of the earth"). - Understand the earth/moon/sun system, and the properties, structures and predictable motions of celestial bodies in the Universe. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. [36], The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5682+0.0002â0.0004 Ga (billion years) ago. Uplift -- A structurally high area in the crust, produced by movements that raise the rocks, as in a broad dome or arch. - Explain the relationship between the movement of air masses, high and low pressure systems, and frontal boundaries to storms (including thunderstorms, hurricanes, and tornadoes) and other weather conditions that may result. Found inside – Page 3512 Teach Warm air Figure 12-14 Wind develops from uneven heating on Earth . ... The flow of air caused by differences in heating and by the Coriolis effect creates Actual path distinct wind patterns on Earth's surface . Found inside – Page 367Wind is a consequence of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface. Uneven heating effects of ... Climatic differences and the non-uniform surface of the Earth modify the global wind patterns on continental scales. Local winds depend on ... Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. [155][156], By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solsticesâthe points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sunâand the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. )", "Third rock from the Sun â restless Earth", "Chart: Globally, 70% of Freshwater is Used for Agriculture", "Fundamentals of Physical Geography (2nd Edition)", "World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)", "Record low surface air temperature at Vostok station, Antarctica", "Stratosphere and Weather; Discovery of the Stratosphere", "Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics", "The Aeronomy of Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of the Earth", 10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<1118:TAOHIT>2.0.CO;2, "Interdependency between animal and plant species", "On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient", "Number of species on Earth tagged at 8.7 million", "Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming", "Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide", "World population in 2100 could be 2 billion below UN forecasts, study suggests", "What share of people will live in urban areas in the future? [112], Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. - Explain the impact of the environment and lifestyle choices on biological inheritance (to include common genetic diseases) and survival. Sea surface topography are water deviations from MSL, analogous to land topography. [223] Earth provides liquid waterâan environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain metabolism. [220] Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct. - Predict the effect of a given force on the motion of an object, including balanced forces. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere. [161], The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high. [259] This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. [189] Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. [5][151], The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in radius. - Summarize ways that humans protect their environment and/or improve conditions for the growth of the plants and animals that live there. - Explain how the sun's energy impacts the processes of the water cycle (including evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation and runoff). [247] Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales. Most glasses are supercooled liquids, i.e., metastable, but there is no break in the change in properties between the metastable and stable states. [111] More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. It occurs as crystalline quartz, cryptocrystalline chalcedony, and amorphous opal; dominantly in sand, diatomite, and chert; and combined in silicates as an essential constituent of many minerals. [78] Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100â900 million years. According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form. [188] The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. (Table 8o-1)", "The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy", "Estimation of the absolute surface air temperature of the Earth", "Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved", "Ag Isotopic Evolution of the Mantle During Accretion: New Constraints from Pd and Ag Metal-Silicate Partitioning", "Constraining the Evolutionary History of the Moon and the Inner Solar System: A Case for New Returned Lunar Samples", "Controversial Moon Origin Theory Rewrites History", "On the origin and composition of Theia: Constraints from new models of the Giant Impact", "Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth", "Earth's water may have been inherited from material similar to enstatite chondrite meteorites", "Oldest measurement of Earth's magnetic field reveals battle between Sun and Earth for our atmosphere", "Heterogeneous Hadean hafnium: evidence of continental crust at 4.4 to 4.5 ga", "Early formation and long-term stability of continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle", "Rates of generation and destruction of the continental crust: implications for continental growth", "Secular Trends in the Geologic Record and the Supercontinent Cycle", "When and how did the ice age end? Weathering -- The destructive processes by which rocks are changed on exposure to atmospheric agents at or near the earth's surface, with little or no transport of the loosened or altered material. NCES.8.L.1 - Understand the hazards caused by agents of diseases that effect living organisms. Found inside – Page 82The Earth's surface can be roughly divided into the three major climate zones shown here. moves toward the poles, transporting heat and ... Figure 5-2c shows three distinct wind patterns, one in each zone of the northern hemisphere. Clast -- An individual constituent, grain, or fragment of a detrital sediment or sedimentary rock, produced by the physical disintegration of a larger rock mass. A speleothem . Igneous rocks constitute one of the three main classes into which rocks are divided, the others being metamorphic and sedimentary. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. - Compare fossils (including molds, casts, and preserved parts of plants and animals) to one another and to living organisms. a striking erosional form on the land surface. - Understand the composition and properties of matter before and after they undergo a change or interaction. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. Metamorphic -- Pertaining to the process of metamorphism or to its results. - Compare the structures and life functions of single-celled organisms that carry out all of the basic functions of life including:Euglena;Amoeba;Paramecium;Volvox. [262] Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. - Explain the effects of the transfer of heat (either by direct contact or at a distance) that occurs between objects at different temperatures. 29.2% of Earth's surface is land consisting of continents and islands. [169], The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Pumice -- A light-colored cellular glassy rock commonly having the composition of rhyolite. - Give examples of matter that change from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to a solid by heating and cooling. [184], In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. - Summarize the basic needs of a variety of different plants (including air, water, nutrients, and light) for energy and growth. Crsytallites are detectable in thin section. The gravitational interaction between Earth and the Moon causes tides, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and gradually slows its rotation. - Explain the relationship among visible light, the electromagnetic spectrum, and sight. - Recognize the basic forms of energy (light, sound, heat, electrical, and magnetic) as the ability to cause motion or create change. The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. [4][n 10] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is 86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s). This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. - Understand the interactions of matter and energy and the changes that occur. - Illustrate how sound is produced by vibrating objects and columns of air. Chapter 1 has assessed historical warming between the 1850–1900 and 2006–2015 periods to be 0.87°C with a ±0.12°C likely (1-standard deviation) range, and global near-surface air temperature to be 0.97°C. Limestone is the most important and widely distributed of the carbonate rocks and is the consolidated equivalent of limy mud, calcareous sand, and/or shell fragments. [45] Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. The most common cements are silica, carbonates, and iron oxides. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. Earth's mass is approximately 5.97Ã1024 kg (5,970 Yg). Found inside – Page 74( c ) Wind patterns caused by the spin of the earth . Precipitation High Moderate High Low ... As the air moves northward it also cools , and some of it sinks back to the Earth's surface ( FIGURE 5-2b ) . This air flows back toward the ... - Recognize that energy can be transferred from one system to another when two objects push or pull on each other over a distance (work) and electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electrical current can pass. [87], The average diameter of the reference spheroid is 12,742 kilometres (7,918 mi). [236], It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live onâthree-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. [174][175] A trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun. [195] Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Shale-- A fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock, formed by the compaction of clay, silt, or mud. - Compare the physical properties of samples of matter: (strength, hardness, flexibility, ability to conduct heat, ability to conduct electricity, ability to be attracted by magnets, reactions to water and fire). The crust is separated from the mantle by the MohoroviÄiÄ discontinuity. Hydrothermal -- Of or pertaining to hot water, to the action of hot water, or to the products of this action, such as a mineral deposit precipitated from a hot aqueous solution; also said to be the solution itself. [132], The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. [69][70], During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 541 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. Angular -- Having sharp angles or borders. Earth orbits around the Sun in about 365.25 days. Found inside – Page 1Hinze (1959) defines: “Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of flow in which the various quantities show a ... It is created through wind shear and buoyancy, which become particularly relevant near the earth's surface. [212], Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. - Infer that change is something that happens to many things in the environment based on observations made using one or more of their senses. [158] The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Said of an ore deposit formed adjacent to a volcanic feature to which it is genetically related and from which its constituents have been derived. NCES.5.P.3 - Explain how the properties of some materials change as a result of heating and cooling. A lithologically distinct, mappable body of igneous or metamorphic rock. - Understand how biotechnology is used to affect living organisms. [61] The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. [78], The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. - Understand forms of energy, energy transfer and transformation and conservation in mechanical systems. Found inside – Page 968Land Forms INTRODUCTION Landforms are features of the earth that together comprise the land surface . ... In the case of dunes , each distinctive slope also provides information on the wind direction during formation . [262] The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability. Earth's outer layer is divided into several rigid tectonic plates[list] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years, while its interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates Earth's magnetic field, and a convective mantle that drives plate tectonics. - Understand how plants survive in their environments. - Explain how the properties of some materials change as a result of heating and cooling. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. Any of several hard, inert materials, such as sand, gravel, slag, or crushed stone, used for mixing with a cemeting or bituminous material to form concrete, mortar, or plater; or used alone, as in railroad ballast or graded fill. Its occurrence provides a criterion for meteorite impact. [153], The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°[4] with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the Celestial Poles. NCES.8.L.4 - Understand the evolution of organisms and landforms based on evidence, theories and processes that impact the Earth over time. - Compare daily and seasonal changes in weather conditions (including wind speed and direction, precipitation, and temperature) and patterns. - Give examples of different ways objects and organisms move (to include falling to the ground when dropped ): Straight, Zigzag, Round and round, Back and forth, Fast and slow. In geodesy, the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the geoid. - Explain how differences among animals of the same population sometimes give individuals an advantage in surviving and reproducing in changing habitats. NCES.5.L.1 - Understand how structures and systems of organisms (to include the human body) perform functions necessary for life. - Remember the function of the following structures as it relates to the survival of plants in their environments: Roots - absorb nutrients;Stems - provide support;Leaves - synthesize food;Flowers - attract pollinators and produce seeds for reproduction. - Summarize the needs of living organisms for energy and growth. ", "Back-of-the-Envelope Calculations: Scale of the Himalayas", "Did Edmund Hillary Climb the Wrong Mountain", "Chemical composition of Earth, Venus, and Mercury", "Structural geology of the Earth's interior", "Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core", "Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core", "The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought", "Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle", "The Structure of the Terrestrial Planets", "Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Cocos-Nazca Spreading Center", "Geologically current motion of 56 plates relative to the noânetârotation reference frame", "Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1", California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, "Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects", "Land transformation by humans: A review", "Current Systems in the Earth's Magnetosphere", "Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock", "Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere", "Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation", "The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets", "Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates", "Milankovitch (Orbital) Cycles and Their Role in Earth's Climate", "Croll Revisited: Why is the Northern Hemisphere Warmer than the Southern Hemisphere? [131], The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Found in impact craters and associated structures. [178], As of April 2020[update], there are 2,666 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth. Of or pertaining to both the earth's atmosphere and space, as in aerospace industries. [125] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite. NCES.7.E.1 - Understand how the cycling of matter (water and gases) in and out of the atmosphere relates to Earth. [56], The most recent pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma,[57] and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. 1. - Explain the monthly changes in the appearance of the moon, based on the moon's orbit around the Earth. [108][109], The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW mâ2, for a global heat loss of 4.42Ã1013 W.[110] A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia", "Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth", "Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon", "Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago", "SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions", "Estimates of the magnitudes of major marine mass extinctions in earth history", "Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%. In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity.
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